CHAPTER ONE
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1.1BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The development of counsellor trainees is the main concern in counselling training. Several writers (Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg and Delworth, 1987; Stoltenberg and McNeill, 1997; Stoltenberg, et al., 1998) developed a comprehensive developmental model of clinical supervision, the Integrated Developmental Model (IDM). The IDM explicates the general professional development of the trainees. It outlines a continuous process of trainee growth and development across three developmental stages, Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3, which represent a gradual progression from the beginning of the involvement of trainees in counselling training. In relation to this, based on an idea proposed by Orlinsky and Ronnestad (2005), and by Ronnestad and Ladany (2006), Grafanaki (2010) suggests that the development of counsellor trainees is also important for clients and society at large. Being able to develop contributes to the performance as a counsellor. However, Holloway (1995) offers a different view of the development of the trainees. She offered that the supervisory relationship itself creates a trainee’s initial vulnerability and eventual final autonomy as a counsellor.
Previously, Pitts (1992) argues that the nature of the counselling practicum creates a challenging learning experience for the counsellor trainees. The author identifies two types of problems related to the counselling practicum. Type 1 problems are related to individual failures to perform as reasonably expected, due to such factors as lack of information, lack of resources or lack of resolution of personal issues; while type 2 problems result from a failure of some aspect of the system. The two sources of problems are on a continuum, and many problems stem from some combination of the two sources. In addition, Baird (1996) points out that the counselling practicum provides an opportunity for the trainees to bring together information, knowledge, and skills learned during the training at the university, as well as to review what has been learned. The trainees have opportunities to try new skills, and to develop these skills, as well as to learn from both successes and mistakes while trying to apply these skills. Recently, Folkes-Skinner et al. (2010) indicates that training to be a counsellor is stressful and that it inevitably involves significant shifts in identity, self-knowledge and confidence. Most of these changes related to starting work with clients. Despite the significant shifts, counsellor trainees develop their self-confidence about becoming effective helpers and the anxiety level decreases as they go through their supervised training (Al-Darmaki, 2004).
The ability to fulfil needs creates a feeling of satisfaction in one’s own ability. The perception of one’s own ability explains the individual’s efficacy. Self-efficacy is a set of beliefs about the self, which results from a variety of sources, over a period of time. The concept of self-efficacy has been applied to the counselling process since the 1980s (Larson et al., 1992). The sense of personal efficacy of the individual mediates the relationship between what the person knows how to do and what he really does. The authors (Larson et al., 1992) suggest four sources of information that will influence the perception of self-efficacy: (a) performance enactment, which is performing a specific behaviour successfully; (b) vicarious learning, which is observing a model successfully performing a specific behaviour; (c) verbal persuasion, which is listening to someone explaining how to perform the specific behaviour; and (d) emotional arousal, which is anxiety that discourages one’s self-efficacy. Earlier research (Larson et al., 1992) indicates that a stronger perception of counselling self-efficacy relates to more self-esteem, less anxiety, stronger self-perceived problem solving effectiveness, and more satisfaction with pre-practicum class performance among counsellor trainees. Leach et al. (1997) found that previous counselling experience had an impact on the selfefficacy of trainees. According to the authors, experience with various types of clients may contribute towards a greater understanding of the counselling process and individual differences. Corey (1996) discusses personal characteristics of the counsellor during counselling sessions, and argues that these characteristics may foster client growth. As the writer noted, ‘Effective counsellors have an identity. They know who they are, what they are capable of becoming, what they want out of life, and what is essential’ (p. 16). Despite this, Folkes-Skinner et al. (2010) found in their research that easier clients provide counsellors with positive initial experiences of seeing clients, thus giving time for counsellor trainees to develop confidence and a positive professional identity, which can help them later when clients become more challenging. However, as Turner et al. (2008) found in their research that although it might be difficult and painful for trainees to work with clients, it can also be rewarding and worthwhile.
Thorne (2003) discusses the idea of the subjective reality put forward by Rogers. Thorne notes that ‘because of the primary given to the subjective, each individual, according to Rogers, lives in a private world of experience which he or she alone has the capacity to understand, and then probably not fully’ (p.86). Working on this premise, it could be argued that development and self-efficacy experienced by counsellor trainees would be different from one trainee to another.
Several writers (Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg et al., 1998; Holloway, 1995) illustrate the development of the trainees during the counselling practicum. Being in the real environment is an opportunity for the trainees to gain learning experience (Baird, 1996). Despite this, the nature of the counselling practicum creates a challenging experience (Pitts, 1992). However, counsellor trainees are individuals who have their own subjective reality (Thorne, 2003). The aim of this study is to address such issues in a qualitative perspective. The study is also designed to understand self-efficacy and in what ways this contributes to development among counsellor trainees?
From the year 1997 onwards, the application of the fulltime counsellor for student has been implementing in all secondary school in Malaysia. Even thought the counselling practice is still new in Malaysia, the acceptances from the society are positive in the implementation toward the school counselling (Othman Mohamed, 2006). School climate is regarding to the school buildings and also the classes in the school. School climate.Tableman (2004)School climate characterizes the organization at the school building and classroom level. It refers to the “feel” of a school and can vary from school to school within the same district. While an individual school can develop a climate independently of the larger organization, changes in school culture at the district level can positively or adversely affect school climate at the building level. Meanwhile, according to Johns and Stevens (2005), school climate can be defined as the environment around the school or learning environment for a school. Depending on the study, school climate might be called school environment or school-level learning environment In addition, Marshall (2002), also state, characters for a school building physical structures such as schools and interaction between teachers and students are the factors that affect and can help to define the concept of school climate.) Characteristics of schools, such as the physical structure of a school building and the interactions between students and teachers, are two diverse factors that both affect and help to define the broad concept of school climate. Additionally, school climate can significantly impact educational environments, as Freiberg (1998) notes, “school climate can be a positive influence on the health of the learning environment or a significant barrier to learning”. Adapted from Bandura’s (1986, 1997) general social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is belief in one’s capacity to succeed at task. Generally self-efficacy is belief in one’s general capacity to handle tasks. Specific self-efficacy refers to beliefs about one’s ability to perform specific tasks. (Larson & Daniels, 1998). Counsellor (or counselling) self-efficacy refers to counsellors’ beliefs about their ability to perform particular role-related behaviours. These beliefs have been operational zed in a variety of ways, especially as perceived capabilities to enact defined skills and routine session management tasks (which may be termed task or content self-efficacy) or to negotiate more challenging clinical scenarios (coping efficacy). Self-efficacy has been found to be a singnicant predictor of superior performance. As “belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”
In the same vein, studies have demonstrated a high correlation among counsellor selfefficacy, positive counsellor and client outcomes (Larson & Daniels, 1998; Orlinsky, Grawe, & Parks, 1994). Researchers have found that counsellor self-efficacy is positively related to counsellor training level and experience (Bischoff, Barton, Thober, Hawley, 2002; Lent et al., 2003; Tang, Addison, LaSure-Bryant, Norman, O’Connell, & Stewart-Sicking, 2004). It has also been shown to be associated with positive counsellor self-concept (Larson et al., 1992), counsellor development (Leach, et al., 1997), and expectations of counselling outcomes (Sipps, Sugden, & Faiver, 1988). Furthermore, researchers have demonstrated a negative relationship between counsellor self-efficacy and counsellor anxiety (Larson et al., 1992).
Understanding the utility of counsellor self-efficacy theory and specifically its application is important for counsellor educators and researchers, because counsellor self-efficacy has been demonstrated to play a central role in counsellor trainee development (Stoltenberg, McNeill, & Delworth, 1998) and training initiatives (Larson, Clark, Wesely, Koraleski, Daniels, & Smith, 1999). Based on the relationship between counselling self-efficacy and counselling outcomes and the impact increased self-efficacy may have on reducing anxiety among counsellors-in-training, researchers have asserted that cultivating self-efficacy in counsellors needs to be a primary objective of counsellor-training programs (Bischoff, 1997; Duryee, Brymer, & Gold, 1996; Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992, Tyron, 1996). In this light, counsellor educators are ethically charged with ensuring that new counsellors in the field are competent to meet standard (American Counselling Association, 2005).
Unfortunately, counsellor self-efficacy of pre-pratica trainees is greatly hindered by several factors with their attendant consequences grave to the society. For instance, in the training of counsellors, researchers have found that current counsellor education methods are effective in teaching discrete behavioural skills such as reflection of feelings and attending behaviour (Baker, Daniels, & Greeley, 1990; Hill & Lent, 2006; Kurtz, Marshall, & Banspach, 1985). However, less is known, about the development of internal (such as cognitive) counselling skills. Literature suggests that there is little guidance in counsellor education on how to prepare students in the habits of mind and ways of being, such as attention control and empathic understanding. It appears that a conceptualization of how these essential skills develop is less clear and, as of yet, less researched.
For instance, in Nigeria, the counselling profession is relatively young and still budding. However, much is done in the counselling programmes that unknowingly could impede their efficacy. Pre-practica trainees are provided among many, intensive training in observing nonverbal behaviour, analyzing motives, handling confrontations and reflecting feelings, making the counsellor to be most attractive human beings, expert at efficiently developing trusting and productive relationships not only at work. Generally, pre-pactica trainees are trained consumers of life most passionately (Kotler, 1995). They are inspired to become knowledgeable generalist, renaissance scholars and devourers of truth in any palatable form. They are not restricted to their learning text but opportune to broaden their minds. In a conservatively prudent and conscious approach, they are expected to read literature, history, anthropology, sociology, biology, biochemistry, education, psychology, philosophy all in a beneficent model that would aid the unfolding of the abstract thing and mystery called the human mind. Hence, counselling programme is about the most challenging emotional experience a student can undertake with strict intense academic and clinical pressures that has to be contained and exceeded.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Becoming a counselor is an intellectually and emotionally challenging task (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). Counselors-in-training are expected to learn a new way of relating to others that often runs counter to social norms (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992). For example, rather than telling a client that everything will be OK, they are required to sit with a client’s emotions. Instead of knowing the right answer, they are required to get comfortable with ambiguity. In place of smiling in acquiescence, they are challenged to be genuine and, at the same time, non-judgmental. Moreover, the academic skills that helped counsellors-in-training succeed academically in the past do not necessarily translate into the ability to succeed in the interpersonal aspects of counselling. Hence as efficacy among other counselling attributes and skills are vital to the outcome of counselling sessions, there is a great need to pay close attention to models that describes how best to train counsellors particularly pre-practical trainees.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The main aim and objective of the study is to examine the effects of teacher education in teaching environment on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of Education Ondo, Ondo State. Other objectives of this study include:
1.to determine the relationship between teacher education in teaching environment and on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee.
2. to examine the effects teacher education has on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee.
3. to examine the factors that can enhance teachers education on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of Education.
4. to investigate the impact course satisfaction and perception of pre-practical trainees on their counselling self-efficacy.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the relationship between teacher education in teaching environment and on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee?
2. What effect has teacher education on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee?
3. What are the factors that can enhance teachers’ education on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of Education?
4. What is the impact course satisfaction and perception of pre-practical trainees on their counselling self-efficacy?
1.5 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1. H0: teacher education has no significant effect in teaching environment on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of Education Ondo, Ondo State.
2. H1: teacher education has significant effect in teaching environment on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of Education Ondo, Ondo State.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY
This study will cover the effects of teacher education in teaching environment on counseling self-efficacy of pre-practical trainee in Adeyemi college of education Ondo, Ondo State.
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
- Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).
- Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Effects: a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.
Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is, according to psychologist Albert Bandura who originally proposed the concept, a personal judgment of "how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations". Psychologists have studied self-efficacy from several perspectives.
Pre-practical: a course of study designed especially for the preparation of teachers and clinicians that involves the supervised practical application of previously studied theory
Trainee: A trainee is commonly known as an individual taking part in a trainee program or a graduate program within a company after having graduated from university or college. A trainee is an official employee of the firm that is being trained to the job they were originally hired for.
